Tuesday, May 26, 2020

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Friday, May 15, 2020

Biography of King Louis XIV, France’s Sun King

Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, was the longest-reigning monarch in European history, ruling France for 72 years and 110 days. He was responsible for moving the center of French government to the Palace of Versailles in 1682.   Fast Facts: Louis XIV Known For: King of France, 1643-1715Born: 5 September 1638Died: 1 September 1715Parents: Louis XVIII; Anne of AustriaSpouses: Maria Theresa of Spain (m. 1660; d. 1683); Francoise d’Aubigne, Marquise de Maintenon (m. 1683)Children: Louis, Dauphin of France Louis XIV assumed the throne at the age of five, and he was raised to believe in his divine right to rule. His experience with civil unrest during his childhood simultaneously fostered his desire for a strong France as well as his distaste for the French peasantry. He built a strong central government and expanded France’s borders, but his lavish lifestyle laid the foundation for the French Revolution.   Birth and Early Life Louis XIV’s birth was a surprise. His parents, Louis XIII of France and Anne of Austria, were married when they were both 14, and they strongly disliked each other. Their marriage had produced a series of miscarriages and stillbirths, for which Louis blamed Anne. At the age of 37, Anne gave birth to a son, christened Louis-Dieudonne or Louis, the Gift of God. Two years later, she had a second son, Louis’ brother, Philippe I, Duke of Orleans. Louis XIV, King of France (1638-1715) in his Coronation Robes. Found in the collection of Ambras Castle, Innsbruck. Artist : Egmont, Justus van. Heritage Images / Getty Images Louis was doted on by his mother, and the two built a strong bond. He was raised from birth to believe that he was a gift from God, and it was his divine right to rule France as an absolute monarch. Even in his early years, Louis was charismatic, and he had an aptitude for languages and the arts.   The Sun King Louis’ father died when he was only four, making him Louis XIV, king of France. His mother served as regent with the help of Cardinal Mazarin, but the years were marked by civil unrest. When Louis was 9 years old, members of the parliament in Paris rebelled against the crown, and the royal family was forced to flee to the Chà ¢teau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The rebellion and subsequent civil war, known as the Fronde, sparked Louis’ dislike for Paris and his fear of rebellions, impacting his future political decisions. In 1661, Cardinal Mazarin died, and Louis declared himself as the Absolute Monarch to the French parliament, breaking with past French kings.  In Louis’ view, treason wasn’t a crime under the law, but rather a sin against God. He adopted the Sun as the symbol of his monarchy, and he immediately began to centralize control of the government. He developed strict foreign policy while expanding the navy and army, and in 1667 he invaded Holland to claim what he believed to be his wife’s inheritance. Under pressure from the Dutch and the English, he was forced to retreat, though in 1672, he was able to ally with a new English king, Charles II, to conquer territory from the Dutch and expand the size of France. Louis XIV, King of France, by artist Charles le Brun, c1660-c1670. From the Musee du Louvre, Paris. Print Collector / Getty Images Louis appointed those loyal to the crown to government offices to carry out legal and financial matters in the different regions of France. In 1682, he formally moved the center of government from Paris to his palace in Versailles. A staunch Catholic, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685, which had provided legal protection for French Protestants, causing a mass exodus of Protestants to the Netherlands and England. Marriage and Children Louis’ first significant relationship was with Marie Mancini, the niece of Cardinal Mazarin, but his first marriage was a political union with his first cousin, Maria Theresa of Spain. Though the pair produced six children together, only one survived to adulthood. The relationship was said to have been friendly but never passionate, and Louis took numerous mistresses. Louis’ second wife was Francoise d’Aubigne, a devout Catholic and once governess of Louis’ illegitimate children. Maria Theresa of Spain In 1660, Louis married Maria Theresa, the daughter of Philip IV of Spain. She was his first cousin on his mother’s side, a Spanish princess of the House of Habsburg. The marriage was a political arrangement intended to foster peace and unity between the neighboring countries.Of their six children, only one,  Louis le Grand Dauphin, also known as Monseigneur, survived to adulthood. Though Monseigneur was heir to the throne, Louis XIV outlived both his son and his grandson, passing the throne to his great-grandson at the time of his death. Francoise d’Aubigne, Marquise de Maintenon As the governess to Louis’ illegitimate children, d’Aubigne came into contact with Louis on numerous occasions. She was a widow, known for her piety. The pair was secretly married at Versailles in 1683, never announcing the marriage to the public, though it was a matter of common knowledge. Mistresses and Illegitimate Children Throughout his marriage to his first wife, Maria Theresa, Louis took both official and unofficial mistresses, producing more than a dozen children. He was more faithful to his second wife, Francoise d’Aubigne, likely due to her piety, though the two never had children. The Palace of Versailles As a result of the rebellions he saw in his youth and the subsequent civil war, Louis developed a strong dislike for Paris, and he spent long stretches of time at his father’s hunting lodge in Versailles. During his lifetime, Versailles became Louis’ refuge. A view of the equestrian statue of King Louis XIV in front of the chateau de Versailles on October 30, 2015 in Versailles, France.   Chesnot / Getty Images In 1661, after the death of Cardinal Mazarin, Louis began a massive construction project on Versailles, transforming the lodge into a palace suitable to host the Parisian court. He included the symbol of his monarchy, the sun with his face stamped into its center, as a design element in almost every part of the palace. Louis formally relocated the French seat of government from Paris to Versailles in 1682, though construction continued on the palace until 1689. By isolating political leaders in rural Versailles, Louis strengthened his control over France. Decline and Death Toward the end of his life, Louis faced a series of personal and political disappointments in addition to failing health. The House of Stuart fell in England, and the Protestant William of Orange took the throne, eliminating any chance of continued political association between the countries. Louis XIV also lost a series of battles during the War of Spanish Succession, though he did manage to maintain the territory he had gained in previous decades. Medical journals from the 18th century indicate that Louis faced a myriad of health complications towards the end of his life, including dental abscesses, boils, and gout, and he likely suffered from diabetes. In 1711, Louis XIV’s son, le Grand Dauphin, died, followed by his grandson, le Petit Dauphin in 1712. Louis XIV died on September 1, 1715, from gangrene, passing the crown to his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV. Legacy During his lifetime, Louis XIV built an empire, reconstructing the government of France and transforming the country into the dominant European power. He is the most significant example of an absolute monarch during the 17th and 18th centuries, and he built the Palace of Versailles, one of the most famous contemporary historical landmarks in the world. However strong Louis XIV made France to foreign adversaries, he created a stark divide between the nobility and the working classes, isolating the political elite in Versailles and separating the nobility from the common people in Paris. While Louis created a France that was stronger than it had ever been, he unknowingly laid the foundation for the revolution that was to come, a revolution that would see the permanent end to the French monarchy. Sources Berger, Robert W.  Versailles: The Chà ¢teau of Louis XIV. The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1985.Bernier, Olivier. Louis XIV. New World City, Inc., 2018.Cronin, Vincent.  Louis XIV. The Harvill Press, 1990.Horne, Alistair. Seven Ages of Paris: Portrait of a City. Macmillian, 2002. Mitford, Nancy.  The Sun King: Louis XIV at Versailles. New York Review Books, 2012.

Wednesday, May 6, 2020

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding By David Hume Essay

Universal Perfect Doesn’t Exist: Genuine Knowledge Means Shift It has been many years, the foundation of all genuine knowledge, whether they are found on experience (empiricism) or they could simply gain from pure reasoning (rationalism) has been the subject of academic debate among scholars. However, we will only focus on the limitation of pure reasoning, compare both David Hume and Rene Descartes’ views of knowledge, and decide whose belief works better to attain genuine knowledge in this paper. In the book â€Å"An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding†, David Hume specifically clarifies on how moral reasoning (induction) works in the knowledge of cause and effect and he shares on its limitation. Accordingly, he writes â€Å"[i]n reality, all arguments from experience are founded on the similarity, which we discover among natural objects, and by which we are induced to expect effects similar to those, which we have found to follow from such objects† (p. 23). Based upon his writing, Hume explains people tend to reason a p articular instance and expect the future outcome depending on their past experiences; they make conclusions with inductive reasoning. However, the induction has the limitation because it doesn t guarantee future instances will resemble previously observed ones. An example of induction argument: Previously, the temperature of mid-summer in California has been always above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Therefore, the temperature of mid-summer in California will always beShow MoreRelatedAn Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding By David Hume914 Words   |  4 PagesDavid Hume, the Scottish empiricism philosopher who endorses on all knowledge is obtained from sense-experience and he practices moderate skepticism for his entire academic life. Hume’s moderate skepticism refers to abduction today in which it means inference to the best explanation. To it another way, he means credible belief is possible and genuine knowledge could be inaccurate. In the â€Å"section IV- Sceptical Doubts concerning the Operation of the Understanding† part two of the book â€Å"An EnquiryRead MoreAn Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding By David Hume2287 Words   |  10 PagesIn Section IV of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding by David Hume, Hume provides argument that will outline that any conclusions about the future based on past experience are limited to being just probable suppositions, because all arguments that claim to know the future impacts of an object’s â€Å"secret powers† (Hume 21) are based in assumption. By â€Å"secret powers† (Hume 21), Hume means those abilities of an object, such as a loaf of bread, to â€Å"support†¦ a human body.† (Hume 21) The bases for Hume’sRead More Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding by David Hume Essay1279 Words   |  6 Pagesof thought in the human mind, and many different reasons for this origin have been put forth. As a philosopher, it is only fitting that Hume would propose his own framework for human thinking. For Hume, perceptions are developed either as the understanding of the outside world, or as recollections of these events or alterations of these memories within the mind ¹. This distinction is important, as it allows Hum e to differentiate perceptions as true or false notions. With this, Hume puts forward hisRead MoreIn An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding by David Hume, the idea of miracles is introduced.1300 Words   |  6 PagesIn An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding by David Hume, the idea of miracles is introduced. Hume’s argument is that there is no rational reason for human beings to believe in miracles, and that it is wrong to have miracles as the building blocks for religion. It is because the general notion of miracles come from the statement of others who claim to have seen them, Hume believes that there is no way to prove that those accounts are accurate, because they were not experienced first-hand. In orderRead MoreAn Inquiry Into Human Enquiry1228 Words   |  5 Pagesinto Human Enquiry In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume argues for the division of human enquiry into two types: relations of ideas and matters of fact. Relations of ideas are certain and may be found through only thinking, while matters of fact are uncertain and depend on the world around us (Hume 18-19). I will argue in this paper that Hume’s view on human enquiry is conceivable but that there remain some reasons to doubt the accuracy of his categorization. Hume arguesRead More Cause and Effect in David Hume’s An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding851 Words   |  4 PagesCause and Effect in David Hume’s An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume states, â€Å"there is not, in any single, particular instance of cause and effect, any thing which can suggest the idea of power or necessary connexion† (Hume, 1993: 41). Hume establishes in section II that all ideas originate from impressions that employ the senses (11). Therefore, in order for there to be an idea of power or â€Å"necessary connexion,† thereRead MoreDefending Hard Determinism Against the Strongest Objections Raised Against It1161 Words   |  5 Pagesand defined description of both hard determinism and its eventual nemesis indeterminism. Based on these definitions there will be a personal attempt at denying hard determinism. This will be accomplished through the introduction of David Hume and his radical philosophy on causality and the relation this may have on hard determinism, as well as the various possibilities it may distinguish. Furthermore the Causal Principle will also be introduced and slandered in its incapabilityRead More Comparing Knowledge in Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy and Hume’s An Enquiry Concerning876 Words   |  4 PagesComparing Knowledge in Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy and Hume’s An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Rationalists would claim that knowledge comes from reason or ideas, while empiricists would answer that knowledge is derived from the senses or impressions. The difference between these two philosophical schools of thought, with respect to the distinction between ideas and impressions, can be examined in order to determine how these schools determine the sourceRead MoreEssay on David Humes Theory of Knowledge858 Words   |  4 Pagesbelonged to David Hume, a Scottish philosopher. Hume was born on April 26, 1711, as his family’s second son. His father died when he was an infant and left his mother to care for him, his older brother, and his sister. David Hume passed through ordinary classes with great success, and found an early love for literature. He lived on his family’s estate, Ninewells, near Edinburgh. Throughout his life, literature consumed his thoughts, and his life is little more than his works. By the age of 40, David HumeRead MoreDescartes and H ume: A Look at Skepticism and Finding Stability915 Words   |  4 PagesMeditations on First Philosophy, Descartes concludes that in order to achieve this stability, he must start at the foundations for all of his opinions and find the basis of doubt in each of them. David Hume, however, holds a different position on skepticism in his work An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, for he criticizes Descartes’ claim because â€Å"‘it is impossible,’† (qtd. in Cottingham 35). Both philosophers show distinct reasoning in what skepticism is and how it is useful in finding stability

Tuesday, May 5, 2020

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Essay Example For Students

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Essay The US is seeking to extend the duty-free status of international onlinetransactions to protect the development of global electronic commerce, theClinton administration said yesterday. Susan Esserman, deputy US traderepresentative, said the US wanted the World Trade Organization to agree atthe earliest possible date to extend the current moratorium on customs dutiesIn testimony to the Senate foreign relations sub-committee on Europe, MsEsserman said duty-free cyberspace was particularly valuable to US softwarecompanies that were seeking to distribute their products electronically. The US is also looking for WTO members to affirm that electronic commerce issubject to existing rules and agreements, and should not face unnecessaryregulatory barriers to trade. However Ms Esserman said more time and workare necessary before electronic goods could be subject to finalElectronic commerce in the US is forecast to grow to $1,300bn by 2003, whilein India it is expected to grow by $15bn within two years. Richard Wolffe,Protectionism, it seems, is always with us and it is useful to examine theintermittent attempts made to establish rules for its containment. This bookis one such examination, on the conception, birth, and early years of theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); it is restricted to the years194053. It is the work of an historian but one at the political, rather thaneconomic, end of the spectrum. The heavy emphasis throughout is on theAmerican role within an essentially Anglo-American tussle. The argument isthat although trade was a relatively small p roportion of US output it was usedfor political and diplomatic purposes. The general thrust is that the US waskeen on a new liberal order and determined to break the British empirespreferential trading arrangements. However, when we read that the centralargument is that, by liberalizing trade while protecting domestic economies a bargain consistent with US trade law, practice, and history , wemight reasonably expect to be in for a roc ky ride. Politics is important and possibly even central in the process of tradeprotection, but will always be found to depend on economic forces. Thepolitics here might well be overdone. The whole story is presented as astruggle between the US and Britain/British empire. Although this tension isan old story, Zeiler takes it further and argues that the Commonwealth had amajor hand in shaping the GATT order (p.197). It is a complex story ofnegotiations taking place under conditions of extreme difficulty, and theauthor has worked diligently in the American, British and Commonwealth countryThere is, however, a lot that raises the eyebrows of the economic historian. Within a few lines of the opening we read that, global business leaders seek a commercial regime unfettered by barriers. This is rather theantithesis of the conventional understanding of businessmen almost invariably(and nowhere more so than in the US), seeking protection. And running againstthe conventional view (without seemingly noticing) is the idea that America isthe home and inspiration of free trade. The British in the 1930s opted for,Regulated, rather than American style market, capitalism (p.20). Oragain, Free trade frightened the British (p.39). And richest of all, TheBritish simply would not accept the free trade doctrine (p.24). Zeilersuggests that free trade was key to the American economy ignoring the factthat America had been one of the most protectionist countries for most of itshistory. This is unfortunate and results in a distortion of the argument, forof the GATT negotiations Zeiler say s the British were not willing partners inpursuit of lower trade barriers. At certain times that may have been true butit did not derive from long-te rm hostility. Nevertheless, in the closing pagesof the book the author does concede that the US was no unilateral free trader. .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 , .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .postImageUrl , .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 , .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:hover , .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:visited , .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:active { border:0!important; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:active , .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33 .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u410afae93ff2f6ea2e3d1217af9f7d33:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Truth vs. Lie EssayRunning alongside this idiosyncratic view is an account of the British economythat is surely at odds with the facts. It is a picture of pathetic feebleness:Great Britain faced a future of decline and hardship. Its once predominantglobal position lay in tatters (p.2O). Their economy was in a shambles While the book is well written there is a danger of the story being presentedin overly dramatic terms (hinted at in the title), and at times a frivolousand dismissive tone creeps in From his perch in the Treasury Department,Keynes . And there are occasional lapses in accuracy such as that theCommonwealth had moved to a discriminatory